7.2.3 Consonants: Manner of Articulation

Consonants are also distinguished by how the restriction in airflow is made, for example whether there is a complete stoppage of air, or only a partial blockage, etc. This feature is called the manner of articulation of a consonant. The combination of place and manner of articulation is usually sufficient to uniquely identify a consonant. Following are the major manners of articulation for English consonants:

A stop is a consonant in which airflow is completely blocked for a short time. This blockage is followed by an explosive sound as the air is released. The period of blockage is called the closure and the explosion is called the release. English has voiced stops like [b], [d], and [g] as well as unvoiced stops like [p], [t], and [k]. Stops are also called plosives. Some computational systems use a more narrow (detailed) transcription style that has separate labels for the closure and release parts of a stop. In one version of the ARPAbet, for example, the closure of a [p], [t], or [k] is represented as [pcl], [tcl], or [kcl] (respectively), while the symbols [p], [t], and [k] are used to mean only the release portion of the stop. In another version the symbols [pd], [td], [kd], [bd], [dd], [gd] are used to mean unreleased stops (stops at the end of words or phrases often are missing the explosive release), while [p], [t], [k], etc are used to mean normal stops with a closure and a release. The IPA uses a special symbol to mark unreleased stops: [p⁺], [t⁺], or [k⁺]. We will not be using these narrow transcription styles in this chapter; we will always use [p] to mean a full stop with both a closure and a release.

The nasal sounds [n], [m], and [ng] are made by lowering the velum and allowing air to pass into the nasal cavity.

In fricatives, airflow is constricted but not cut off completely. The turbulent airflow that results from the constriction produces a characteristic “hissing” sound. The English labiodental fricatives [f] and [v] are produced by pressing the lower lip against the upper teeth, allowing a restricted airflow between the upper teeth. The dental fric

tives [th] and [dh] allow air to flow around the tongue between the teeth. The alveolar fricatives [s] and [z] are produced with the tongue against the alveolar ridge, forcing air over the edge of the teeth. In the palato-alveolar fricatives [sh] and [zh] the tongue is at the back of the alveolar ridge forcing air through a groove formed in the tongue. The higher-pitched fricatives (in English [s], [z], [sh] and [zh] are called sibilants. Stops that are followed immediately by fricatives are called affricates; these include English [ch] (chicken) and [jh] (giraffe).

In approximants, the two articulators are close together but not close enough to cause turbulent airflow. In English [y] (yellow), the tongue moves close to the roof of the mouth but not close enough to cause the turbulence that would characterize a fricative. In English [w] (wood), the back of the tongue comes close to the velum. American [r] can be formed in at least two ways; with just the tip of the tongue extended and close to the palate or with the whole tongue bunched up near the palate. [l] is formed with the tip of the tongue up against the alveolar ridge or the teeth, with one or both sides of the tongue lowered to allow air to flow over it. [l] is called a lateral sound because of the drop in the sides of the tongue.

A tap or flap [dx] (or IPA [ɾ]) is a quick motion of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. The consonant in the middle of the word lotus ([l ow dx ax s]) is a tap in most dialects of American English; speakers of many UK dialects would use a [t] instead of a tap in this word.