Unit 5 Psychology

5 Psychology

Lead-in

Read the report of a famous experiment in the history of psychology.

In 1971, the researchers at Stanford, led by psychologist Philip Zimbardo, set up a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford Psych Building and selected 24 undergraduates (who had no criminal record and were psychologically healthy) to act as prisoners and guards. Researchers then observed the prisoners (who had to stay in the cells 24 hours a day) and guards (who shared eight-hour shifts) using hidden cameras.

The experiment, which was scheduled to last for two weeks, had to be cut short after just six days due to the guards' abusive behavior.

“The guards stripped the prisoners naked, putting bags over their heads, and then finally had them engage in increasingly humiliating sexual activities,” Zimbardo told American Scientist. “After six days I had to end it because it was out of control – I couldn’t really go to sleep at night without worrying what the guards could do to the prisoners.”

Now discuss the questions below

1. What conclusions can you draw from the Stanford Prison Experiment?

1. Do you think psychological studies are important? Why or why not?

1. Are there questions you would like to ask psychologists?

Reading 1

What's Behind Phantom Cellphone Buzzes?

Before Reading

Discuss the following questions.

1. Why do many people check their phones frequently? Do you think it is necessary?

1. The word "addiction" is commonly associated with drugs and alcohol. Do you think modern people's dependence on their cellphones is also an addiction?

What's Behind Phantom Cellphone Buzzes?

Daniel J. Kruger

1 Have you ever experienced a phantom phone call or text? You're convinced that you felt your phone vibrate in your pocket, or that you heard your ringtone. But when you check your phone, no one actually tried to get in touch with you.

2 You then might plausibly wonder: "Is my phone acting up, or is it me?"

3 Well, it's probably you, and it could be a sign of just how attached you've become to your phone.

4 At least you're not alone. Over 80% of college students we surveyed have

experienced it. However, if it's happening a lot – more than once a day – it could be a sign that you're psychologically dependent on your cellphone.

5 There's no question that cellphones are part of the social fabric in many parts of the world, and some people spend hours each day on their phones. Our research team recently found that most people will fill their downtime by fiddling with their phones. Others even do so in the middle of a conversation. And most people will check their phones within 10 seconds of getting in line for coffee or arriving at a destination.

6 Clinicians and researchers still debate whether excessive use of cellphones or other technology can constitute an addiction. It wasn't included in the latest update to the DSM-5, the American Psychiatric Association's definitive guide for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders.

7 But given the ongoing debate, we decided to see if phantom buzzes and rings could shed some light on the issue.

8 A virtual drug?

Addictions are pathological conditions in which people compulsively seek rewarding stimuli, despite the negative consequences. We often hear reports about how cellphone use can be problematic for relationships and for developing effective social skills.

9 One of the features of addictions is that people become hypersensitive to cues related to the rewards they are craving. Whatever the cue is, people start to see it everywhere. (I had a college roommate who once thought that he saw a bee's nest made out of cigarette butts hanging from the ceiling.)

10 So might people who crave the messages and notifications from their virtual social worlds do the same? Would they mistakenly interpret something they hear as a ringtone, their phone rubbing in their pocket as a vibrating alert or even think they see a notification on their phone screen – when, in reality, nothing is there?

11 A human malfunction

We decided to find out. From a tested survey measure of problematic cellphone use, we pulled out items assessing psychological cellphone dependency. We also created questions about the frequency of experiencing phantom ringing, vibrations and notifications. We then conducted an online survey to over 750 undergraduate students.

12 Those who scored higher on cellphone dependency – they more often used their phones to make themselves feel better, became irritable when they couldn't use their phones and thought about using their phone when they weren't on it – had more frequent phantom phone experiences.

13 Cellphone manufacturers and phone service providers have assured us that phantom phone experiences are not a problem with the technology. As HAL 9000 $ ^{1} $

might say, they are a product of "human error".

14 So where, exactly, have we erred? We are in a brave new world of virtual socialization, and the psychological and social sciences can barely keep up with advances in the technology.

15 Phantom phone experiences may seem like a relatively small concern in our electronically connected age. But they raise the specter of how reliant we are on our phones – and how much influence phones have in our social lives.

16 How can we navigate the use of cellphones to maximize the benefits and minimize the hazards, whether it's improving our own mental health or honing our live social skills? What other new technologies will change how we interact with others?

17 Our minds will continue to buzz with anticipation.

(635 words)

New Words and Expressions

phantom /ˈfæntəm/ a. existing only in one's imagination 幻觉的；幻象的；虚幻的

buzz $ ^{*} $ /bʌz/ n. a continuous sound like the one that a bee, a buzzer or another electronic device makes 嗡嗡声；蜂鸣声；v. (of one's mind) be filled with anxious or excited thoughts (头脑) 充满激动 (或混乱的) 想法

vibrate /ˈvaɪbreɪt/ v. (cause to) shake continuously and very quickly with a slight movement that may often be felt or heard rather than seen (使) 振动; (使) 颤动

ringtone /'rɪŋtəʊn/ n. the sound made by a telephone, esp. a mobile phone, when sb. is calling (尤指手机的) 铃声

plausibly /'plɔːzəblɪ/ ad. seemingly to be true or reasonable 似乎是真地；似乎是有理地

act up start to become painful or to develop problems 出毛病（通常指疾病发作或是机器运转不正常）

attached $ ^{A} $ /əˈtætʃt/ a. full of affection for sb. / sth. 喜爱的；依恋的

survey $ ^{A} $ /sə'veɪ/ v. investigate the opinions or behavior of a group of people by asking a series of questions (对……) 做民意调查；进行民意测验；/sɜːveɪ/ n. a general examination or study (of conditions, opinions, etc.), esp. carried out by asking people questions 调查

dependent /dɪˈpendənt/ a. needing the help or support of sb. or sth. else 依靠的；依赖的

fabric /ˈfæbrɪk/ n. the basic structure of a society, way of life, or other product of the interaction of different elements (社会、生活方式等的) 基本结构

downtime /'daunt $ \underline{i} $m/ n. the time when sb. stops working and is able to relax 停工期；休息时间

fiddle $ ^{\triangle} $ /'fidl/ v. move things aimlessly in one's fingers 用手胡乱拨弄

get in line wait in a line of people, vehicles, etc. in

order to do sth., get sth. or go somewhere 排队

clinician /klɪnɪʃən/ n. a doctor, psychologist, etc. who has direct contact with patients 临床医师

excessive /ɪkˈsesɪv/ a. too much; going beyond what is reasonable or right 过多的；过度的

constitute $ ^{A} $ /'kɒnstɪtjuːt/ v. form or make up; be 构成；形成；成为

addiction $ ^{*} $ /ə'dɪkʃən/ n. a strong need or wish to spend as much time as possible doing a particular activity 瘾；入迷；癖好

update $ ^{*} $ /'ʌpdeɪt/ n. a new version of sth.

containing the most recent information 最新进展；最新消息；更新内容

psychiatric $ ^{\triangle} $ /,psa $ _{1} $k $ _{1} $' $ \alpha $tr $ _{1} $k/ a. relating to psychiatry or to mental illness 精神病的；精神病学的

definitive $ ^{\star\textcircled{A}} $ /dɪˈfɪnɪtɪv/ a. considered to be the best of its kind and almost impossible to improve 最可靠的；权威性的

diagnose /'daɪəgnəʊz/ v. discover the nature of (a disease or fault) by making a careful examination 诊断（疾病）；判断（问题）

given /'gɪvən/ prep. if one takes into account 如果考虑到

ongoing $ ^{A} $ /'ɒn,gəʊɪŋ/ a. continuing, or continuing to develop 继续进行的；不断前进（或发展）中的

shed light on explain, make (sth.) clearer 解释；

阐明

virtual $ ^{A} $ /'vɜːtʃuəl/ a. made, done, seen, etc., on the Internet or on a computer, rather than in the real world 虚拟的

pathological $ ^{\triangle} $ /pæθə'lɒdʒɪkəl/ a. caused by, or connected with, disease or illness 病态的；与疾病有关的

compulsively /kəmˈpʌlsɪvli/ ad. in a way that is very difficult to stop or control 难以抑制地

rewarding /rɪˈwɔːdɪŋ/ a. giving satisfaction; (of an experience or action) worth doing or having 令人满意的；有益的；值得做的

stimulus $ ^{\star} $ /'stɪmjʊləs/ n. (pl. stimuli) sth.

that helps sb. / sth. to develop better or more

quickly 促进因素；激励因素；刺激物

despite $ ^{A} $ /dɪˈspɑːrt/ prep. in spite of; not prevented by 不管；尽管；任凭

problematic $ ^{\star} $ /ˌprɒbləˈmætɪk/ a. difficult to deal with or to understand; full of problems 造成困难的；产生问题的

feature $ ^{A} $ /'fiːtʃə(r)/ n. sth. important, interesting or typical of a place or thing 特色；特征；特点

hypersensitive /ˌhaɪpəˈsensətɪv/ a. unusually responsive to physical stimuli or emotional signals 过于敏感的

cue /kjuː/ n. an action or event that is a signal for sb. to do sth. 暗示；提示；信号

related /rɪˈleɪtɪd/ a. connected in some way 有关系的

crave $ ^{\triangle} $/kreiv/ v. have a very strong almost uncontrollable desire for (sth., esp. sth. bad) 渴望；热望

cigarette butt the last unsmoked end of a cigarette (香) 烟蒂

notification $ ^{*} $ /,nəʊtɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/ n. an official announcement about sth. that has happened or will happen 通知；通告；通报

interpret $ ^{A} $ /ɪnˈtɜːprɪt/ v. understand the likely meaning of (a statement, action, etc.); place a particular meaning on 把（话语、行为等）理解为；解释；阐明

rub /rʌb/ v. make dragging contact with a surface

摩擦；擦到

alert /əˈlɜːt/ n. a warning of danger or of a problem

警报

in reality in actual fact 实际上

malfunction /mælˈfʌŋkʃən/ n. a fault in the way a machine or part of someone's body works 功能障碍；机能障碍

dependency $ ^{\triangle} $/dípendansi/ n. the state of being dependent; inability to exist or operate without

the help or support of sb. or sth. else 依赖；依靠

frequency /'fri:kwənsi/ n. the rate at which sth. happens or is repeated 发生率；出现率；重复率

undergraduate /ˌʌndəˈɡrædjuət/ a. of or related to a student who is doing a university course for a first degree （尚未取得学位的）大学生；大学本科生的

irritable $ ^{\star} $/'irɪtəbl/ a. tending to get angry at small things; easily annoyed 易怒的；急躁的

manufacturer /ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərə(r)/ n. a person or company that produces goods in large quantities 生产者；制造者；生产商

assure $ ^{A} $ /əˈʃʊə(r)/ v. tell firmly and with confidence, esp. with the aim of removing doubt; promise 向……保证；使确信；使有信心

err $ ^{\triangle} $/3:(r)/ v. make a mistake; do sth. wrong 犯错误；做错事

brave new world a situation or area of activity that is created by the development of sth. completely new and different, often used to suggest that sth. is both new and possibly dangerous (The phrase was first used in Shakespeare's play The Tempest.) (社会大变革后的) 美丽新世界 (常含讽刺意味，源出莎士比亚所著《暴风雨》)

specter /'spektə(r)/ n. sth. fearful or unpleasant

that haunts the mind 缠绕心头的恐惧（或忧虑）

raise the specter of sth. make people feel afraid that sth. frightening might soon happen 引起恐慌

reliant $ ^{\star\textcircled{A}} $ /rɪˈlaɪənt/ a. depending on; relying on 依靠的；依赖的

navigate $ ^{*} $ /'nævigeɪt/ v. find the right way to deal with (a difficult or complicated situation) 找到正确方法对付（困难或复杂的情况）

maximize $ ^{\star\textcircled{A}} $ /'maeksimaiz/ v. increase to the greatest possible size or amount 使增至最大限度；最大化

minimize $ ^{\star\textcircled{A}} $/'minmaiz/ v. lessen to the smallest possible amount or degree 使减至最低限度；最小化

hazard /ˈhæzəd/ n. sth. likely to cause damage or loss; a danger or risk 危险；风险；会造成危害的事物

hone /həun/ v. develop and improve sth., esp. a skill, over a period of time 磨炼；训练（尤指技艺）

interact $ ^{A} $ /,intər'ækt/ v. (of people) act together or cooperatively, esp. so as to communicate with each other 一起活动或互相合作

anticipation $ ^{①} $ /ænˌtɪsɪˈpeɪʃn/ n. the feeling of looking forward, usu. excitedly or eagerly, to sth. that is going to happen 期望；预期

Daniel J. Kruger / 'dænjəl džeɪ 'krugə(r) / 丹尼尔·J·克鲁格

DSM-5 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition 《精神疾病统计诊断手册》第五版

Global Reading

Skim the text and answer the following questions.

1. What's the author's answer to the question "What's Behind Phantom Cellphone Buzzes?"

1. Does the author give advice on how to use cellphones properly?

Close Reading

1. Study the reading skill in the box and work on the task below.

Reading Skill — Distinguishing facts from opinions

When you are reading an academic text, it is important to recognize the difference between facts and opinions.

A fact can be observed, measured, or shown with numbers or statistics.

An opinion expresses a personal judgment. In academic texts, an opinion is often supported with evidence, aiming to be more objective.

Sometimes a statement may include both a fact and an opinion.

E.g. This group makes up about 30 percent of the calories we eat — but the number should be higher for these nutritious options. (Para. 4, Reading 2, Unit 1) (The part "This group makes up about 30 percent of the calories we eat" is a fact and "the number should be higher" expresses an opinion.)

Some opinions are presented as if they were facts. You need to learn to read critically to make the distinction between what is a fact and what is an opinion.

E.g. ... people are good at detecting deception and they show strong negative emotional reactions toward deceivers. (Para. 9, Reading 1, Unit 3) (The statement is presented as a fact, but is actually an opinion: adjectives "good" and "strong" reflect opinions.)

Examine each of the following sentences and judge whether it is a fact (F) or / and opinion (O).

1. At least you're not alone. Over 80% of college students we surveyed have experienced it. (Para. 4)

1. However, if it's happening a lot — more than once a day — it could be a sign that you're psychologically dependent on your cellphone. (Para. 4)

1. There's no question that cellphones are part of the social fabric in many parts of the world, and some people spend hours each day on their phones. (Para. 5)

1. Our research team recently found that most people will fill their downtime by fiddling with their phones. Others even do so in the middle of a conversation. And most people will check their phones within 10 seconds of getting in line for coffee or arriving at a destination. (Para. 5)

1. Those who scored higher on cellphone dependency — they more often used their phones to make themselves feel better, became irritable when they couldn't use their phones and thought about using their phone when they weren't on it — had more frequent phantom phone experiences. (Para. 12)

1. We are in a brave new world of virtual socialization, and the psychological and social sciences can barely keep up with advances in the technology. (Para. 14)

1. Study the reading skill in the box and work on the task below.

Reading Skill — Using questions for effective reading

In some academic texts, the author uses questions, mostly rhetorical questions, for the following three main purposes:

a) to interest the reader and start a discussion;

b) to help the reader understand the author's thinking and guide them towards the final conclusion;

c) to inspire the reader for further thinking.

In fact, keeping questions in mind helps the reader focus on the reading. Even when the author asks no questions, the reader should ask their own while reading, like: What is the purpose of the writing? What information do I need for this topic? What is the main idea for this paragraph?

(Note: For rhetorical questions, you can also refer to "Listening Skill — Recognizing rhetorical questions" in Unit 4.)

The author asks the following questions but gives no direct answers. Discuss with your partner: Why does the author ask the question(s) here?

1. Have you ever experienced a phantom phone call or text? (Para. 1)

1. So might people who crave the messages and notifications from their virtual social worlds do the same? Would they mistakenly interpret something they hear as a ringtone, their phone rubbing in their pocket as a vibrating alert or even think they see a notification on their phone screen — when, in reality, nothing is there? (Para. 10)

___

1. So where, exactly, have we erred? (Para. 14)

1. How can we navigate the use of cellphones to maximize the benefits and minimize the hazards, whether it's improving our own mental health or honing our live social skills? What other new technologies will change how we interact with others? (Para. 16)

1. Answer the following questions.

1. What does the author mean by "A virtual drug?"? (Para. 8)

1. What is "A human malfunction"? (Para. 11)

1. What is the author's main argument in this text?

Critical Thinking

Read the following article and discuss whether young people today are too dependent on cellphones or not.

Are Teens Too Dependent on Cellphones?

Lindsay Filgas

A teenager off their phone is a rare sight. It's safe to say that cellphones have changed dramatically since the first mobile phone was created, and this has sparked an equal change in the way many people live.

No more sitting around the home phone, awaiting a call. Now, you can be out and about, tweeting about what you're doing and texting five people at once. Whether or not this is a good change has become a popular question of debate, but I believe it has had a positive impact, and teens have not become too dependent on their phones.

Cellphones have allowed people much more access to the world around them. It has given them the ability to connect with one another, share information, and learn.

Face-to-face communication has become less and less common, now that there are dozens of ways to communicate through social media and instant messaging. Through the Internet, you can make friends and meet people with similar interests as you, who you never would have met otherwise.

Some may argue that teens don't have the social skills necessary to go out and have a normal conversation, or meet new people. However, I believe many teens gain confidence from talking to people through a keyboard, and can bring that with them when they talk in person.

Social media isn't the only thing drawing teens to the glowing screens. Access to the Internet at any time can be a great convenience. You can read books, check up on current events, do research for a project, or create a presentation, all from the phone in your hand.

Being able to look up information for a school assignment without taking a trip to the library has made learning much easier for many students.

If I were put into a situation where I couldn't use my phone to look something up, and had to use a book or another source, I wouldn't know what to do.

However, such a situation is highly unlikely. The world is evolving and more things are being done online. Knowing how to use different devices, operating systems, and technology is becoming very important. I don't believe teens have become too dependent on cellphones, and they have definitely made life easier for us.

Language Enhancement

1. The boldfaced words are either active words or academic words marked in Academic Word List (AWL).

A. Match the words in the left column with their meanings in the right. Use the context of each word in the text to help you decide.

Group 1

$ \underline{1} $ college students we surveyed (Para. 4) a. in spite of

__2) constitute an addiction (Para. 6) b. continuing

__3) the American Psychiatric Association's definitive guide (Para. 6) c. computer-generated d. authoritative

__4) given the ongoing debate (Para. 7) e. investigated

__ 5) A virtual drug (Para. 8) f. typical aspects

__6) despite the negative consequences (Para. 8) g. form; make

__7) One of the features of addictions (Para. 9)

Group 2

— 8) mistakenly interpret something they hear as a ringtone (Para. 10)

h. warning

i. promised

___ 9) as a vibrating alert (Para. 10) j

— 10) have assured us that phantom phone experiences

are not a problem (Para. 13)

k. e

l. r

j. make the least of

___ 11) how reliant we are on our phones (Para. 15)

___ 12) maximize the benefits (Para. 16)

___ 13) minimize the hazards (Para. 16)

$ \underline{ } $14) how we interact with others (Para. 16)

$ \underline{15} $ continue to buzz with anticipation (Para. 17)

B. Complete the sentences with the boldfaced words from Step A. Change the form where necessary

1. Among the companies _____, 33 percent said they did not always investigate before making overseas investments.

1. Sometimes words can be _____ in different ways, so try to be as clear as you can in your writing to avoid any misinterpretation.

1. The participating groups that are not able to arrive at the meeting can _____ with the experts and students through WeChat videos.

1. Studies show that having fun is a source of happiness, and _____ is an important part of that pleasure.

1. Officials from the zoo said the panda's condition could be the result of a dietary problem, but they _____ people there was nothing to worry about.

1. There are studies under way about this rare disease, but currently no cures or ___ treatments have been announced.

1. Web addicts spend so much time on the Internet that they are unable to draw a distinction between the _____ world and the real world.

1. _____ economic uncertainties and signs of declining, consumers have continued to spend a lot of money online.

2. Complete the sentences with phrases from Reading 1. Their meanings and paragraph numbers have been given in brackets

1. My mobile phone _____ again. I cannot edit text messages, and the chat records are all gone. (is going wrong; Para. 2)

1. Analysis of the cats' behavior suggested they were indeed emotionally _____ their owners. (full of affection for; Para. 3)

1. It probably is best not to _____ switches or controls when riding the subway.

(move aimlessly with your hands; Para. 5)

1. The report ___ the illegal underground economy where stolen bank accounts and identity details are traded in Internet chat rooms. (explains; Para. 7)

1. There is evidence that the rate at which one forgets is directly _____ how much he has learned. (connected with; Para. 9)

1. _____, individual investors like you and I don't own enough shares to have a substantial influence on the company. (In fact; Para. 10)

1. The Western forces launched a new round of war against the Middle East, which _____ an oil crisis all over the world. (triggered people's panic in; Para. 15)

3. Study the word building skill in the box and work on the tasks below

A compound is a combination of two or more words that is used as a single unit. The three different types of compounds are compound nouns, compound adjectives, and compound verbs.

Word Building Skill — Compounding (I): compound nouns

Compounds can take three different forms. First, open compounds are those that are written as two separate words, such as "washing machine", "water bottle". Second, there are hyphenated (带连字符的) compounds, such as "check-in", "mother-in-law". Third, there are closed compounds, written as one word, such as "rainfall", "drawback". There are not any rules about which of the three forms is acceptable for a particular compound. Some compounds are commonly written in two forms, as in "website" / "web site" or "checkout" / "check-out"; while others, such as "bus stop", are strictly used in one form.

Compound nouns are usually made up of two nouns or an adjective and a noun, but other combinations are also possible. Generally, the first word in the compound noun tells us what kind of person or thing it is or what purpose he, she, or it serves, while the second word defines the person or object, telling us who or what it is. For example: "back" + "pack" = "backpack" (a pack you carry on your back).

Some common combinations of compound nouns are:

noun + noun: "website", "roommate", "handbag"

adjective + noun: "blackboard", "software", "highway"

noun + verb: "haircut", "rainfall", "sunrise"

verb + noun: "runway", "swimming pool", "washing machine"

preposition + verb: "input", "output", "upturn".

A. Study the preposition "out", try to form compound nouns by combining "out" with the given words and write down the Chinese meanings. Note that "out" can be put before and / or after the given word, so if possible, please write down two words. The first one has been given as an example.

B. Complete each sentence with a proper word formed in Step A. Change the form where necessary

1. These local people by their very nature were continually on the _____ for intruders, trying to prevent those on the outside from getting in.

1. We wish to clarify that we are unable to reveal any _____ to you due to the confidentiality (保密性) and sensitivity related to the case.

1. Compared to the quiet of the inpatient department (住院部), the _____ department is always crowded and noisy.

1. In some underdeveloped areas, the _____ from elementary schools have always been a difficult problem for educational departments at all levels.

1. He said that his top concern was the trade protectionism (保护主义), which would undoubtedly influence the global economic ___.

4. Study the translating skill in the box and work on the task below

Translating Skill — Addition (III): adding verbs

Verbs are more frequently used in Chinese than in English. In English-Chinese translation, we sometimes supply verbs omitted in the source text to complete the meaning.

In the following sentence, “acting up” is omitted, but the Chinese sentence would sound incomplete if the verb is not added.

Source Text: Well, it's probably you (acting up), and it could be a sign of just how attached you've become to your phone. (Para. 3)

Translation: 嗯，很可能是你 $ \underline{\text{有问题}} $，而且这也许能说明你对手机有多么依恋了。

When a verb in an English sentence is followed by several objects, it is often necessary to add a corresponding verb before each object in the Chinese translation, as can be seen in the following example ("mistakenly interpret" is followed by two objects "something they hear ..." and "their phone rubbing ..."):

Source Text: Would they mistakenly interpret something they hear as a ringtone, their phone rubbing in their pocket as a vibrating alert or even think they see a notification on their phone screen — when, in reality, nothing is there? (Para. 10)

Translation: 他们会不会把别的声音误以为是手机铃声，把手机摩擦口袋 $ \underline{\text{误以为是}} $震动提醒，甚至觉得自己在手机屏幕上看到一条通知——而实际上，却什么也没有？

Examine the following sentences from Reading 1 and their translations, and underline the verbs that have been added

1. But when you check your phone, no one actually tried to get in touch with you. (Para. 1) Translation: 可是当你查看手机时，却发现实际上没有人跟你联系过。

1. You then might plausibly wonder: "Is my phone acting up, or is it me?" (Para. 2) Translation: 那你可能会寻思：“是我的手机有问题，还是我自己有问题？”

1. At least you're not alone. (Para. 4)

Translation: 至少，不只你一个人会这样。

1. It wasn't included in the latest update to the DSM-5, the American Psychiatric Association's definitive guide for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders. (Para. 6)

Translation: 在美国精神医学学会出版的、对精神疾病进行分类和诊断的权威指导手册《精神疾病统计诊断手册》第五版的最近一次更新中也没有包括这一条。

1. We often hear reports about how cellphone use can be problematic for relationships and for developing effective social skills. (Para. 8)

Translation: 我们经常听到一些报道，提到手机使用如何影响人际关系，妨碍有效社交技能的发展。

1. Whatever the cue is, people start to see it everywhere. (Para. 9)

Translation: 不管这种信号是什么，他们开始在每个地方都看到其出现。

Reading 2

Why We Love Superstorms

Before Reading

Study the list of Tropical Cyclone (热带风暴) Names (Atlantic Names) and answer the questions.

1. Could you find the naming rule of storms for every year?

1. Why are the names like Sandy, Katrina, Juno, Irene not included in the list? You may need to surf the Internet for relevant information.

1 Weather is a famously boring conversation starter – until you drop a name like Sandy, Katrina, Juno, or Irene. Even without a hurricane or “snowmageddon” on the horizon, weather reports on channels like CNN garner high viewer ratings. Sometimes, the Weather Channel itself beats the rest of the competition. But why are people so fascinated by storms, even when they’re nowhere near them? When the weather turns bad, why can’t we look away, even after we’ve gotten the information we need to get through it?

2 We may be addicted to the danger. Humans didn't evolve to be safe, risk-minimizing citizens; because our early experiences involved constantly perilous conditions, we developed a certain expectation of risk. Even if you stayed inside your camp or your cave, the world was full of unpredictable, potentially dangerous things. And actively taking risks could be rewarded; that might have been the only way to get food. In the modern environment, we aren't exposed to natural risks in the same way. But the underlying neural mechanisms haven't gone anywhere.

3 Some people innately seek out high-risk situations. They run extreme races, BASE jump, or invest in volatile stocks. Most of us, though, enjoy a certain thrill without losing our heads. We like roller coasters. We'll ski the black diamond trail but may not go off piste. It's a phenomenon that the sociologist Stephen Lyng calls edgework. We feel like we're living on the edge, but we know that there's a safety net.

4 Edgework is precisely what extreme weather is. A winter storm – or any storm, really – approximates this thrill. It's powerful and even dangerous. But safely hidden inside and in front of our computer screens, we don't think it will really hurt us. The power might go out, but then we would be able to share a picture of a car buried in a snowdrift. And then, soon, it will be over. You will have had the thrill, and you might have gained control over it by capturing a moment of “danger”, but in all, it seems a relatively minor risk. We satisfy our inner risk seeker without going into dangerous territory.

5 As for the people on the West Coast who followed the winter storm Juno in 2015 as avidly as any New Yorker or Bostonian, risk can well be experienced vicariously. We stay glued to forecasts of gloom and doom for the same reason we watch the latest X Games. They capture our attention and emotion. The media know this all too well – hence endless calls for photos of the storm.

6 There is one major exception: those who have suffered an extreme weather calamity in the past. We learn differently from description than from experience. If you were in a record-breaking storm in the past and nothing bad happened, you will likely dismiss the current danger. But if you experienced a major loss – the destruction of a house, say, or a multiweek-long loss of power – you likely won't do

much rubbernecking this time. Unlike everyone else, you realize the danger probably isn't worth the Instagrammed snow scene $ ^{1} $.

(513 words)

New Words and Expressions

famously /'feməsli/ ad. to an unusual degree; very 非常；十分

starter /'stɑːtə(r)/ n. sth. that one says or does to start a particular activity, for example a conversation or a game 起始话语；起始动作

snowmageddon /ˌsnəʊməˈɡedən/ n. 雪魔（由 snow和Armageddon构成的组合词，指在2009年及2010年肆虐北美洲并造成巨大灾难的暴风雪）

garner /'gænə(r)/ v. obtain or collect sth. such as information, support, etc. 获得；收集（信息、支持等）

rating $ ^{*} $ /'reɪtɪŋ/ n. a set of figures that show how many people watch or listen to a particular television or radio program, used to show how popular a program is 收视率；收听率

competition /ˌkɒmpɪˈtɪʃən/ n. the people or groups that are competing against sb., esp. in business or in a sport 竞争者；比赛对手

nowhere near not at all, or a long way from being a particular thing 远不及；离得远

get through come successfully to the end of an unpleasant experience or period of time; manage to live through 度过；熬过（困难时期等）

safe /seɪf/ a. not likely to take risks; cautions or careful 谨慎的；小心的

citizen /'sɪtɪzən/ n. 古板保守的人

perilous /'periləs/ a. very dangerous 危险的；艰险的

underlying $ ^{★} $ $ ^{A} $/ˆAndəˈlaɪŋ/ a. in the nature of sth. though not readily apparent 潜在的；内在的

mechanism $ ^{④} $ /'mekənizəm/ n. a system of parts in a living thing that together perform a particular function （生物体内的）机制；构造

innately $ ^{\triangle} $ /'ɪneɪtli/ ad. naturally; inherently 天生地；天赋地

seek out find sb. or sth. as a result of active searching 找出；寻求；想获得

BASE jump 低空跳伞；定点跳伞；大厦跳伞 (BASE为building, antenna, span, Earth的首字母缩合)

invest $ ^{A} $ /in'vest/ v. put (money) to a particular use, e.g. by buying shares in a business, in order to make a profit 投资；入股

invest in buy; spend money on (sth.) in the hope of a future return or benefit 买进；投资于

volatile $ ^{\triangle} $ /'vɒlətaɪl/ a. likely to change suddenly 可能急剧波动的；不稳定的

lose one's head become unable to behave calmly or sensibly 惊慌失措；失去自制

roller coaster /'rəʊlə(r) 'kəʊstə(r)/ （游乐场的）过山车

black diamond a slope that is difficult to ski down 黑钻石坡道（难以下滑的陡坡）

trail /treɪl/ n. a route that is followed for a particular purpose (特定) 路线；路径

piste /piːst/ n. a track of firm snow prepared for skiing on 滑雪道

sociologist* /ˌsəʊsiˈplɒdʒɪst/ n. a person who

studies sociology 社会学家

edgework /'ed3wɜːk/ n. 边缘作业

live on the edge live in a dangerous situation and take many risks 生活在边缘；活在冒险中

approximate $ ^{①} $ /əˈprɒksɪmeɪt/ v. come near (to) in amount, nature, etc. 近似；接近

snowdrift /'snəudrɪft/ n. a deep pile of snow that has been blown together by the wind (风吹成的) 雪堆

capture /ˈkæptʃə(r)/ v. record (sth.) in a picture, film, etc.; attract and hold (one's attention, interest, etc.) （用图片、影像等）记录；引起（注意、兴趣等）

minor $ ^{A} $ /'maɪnə(r)/ a. lesser or smaller in degree, size, number, or importance when compared with others 较少（小）的；低级的；次要的

inner /'ɪnə(r)/ a. of the mind or spirit 精神的；心灵的；内心的

seeker /'siːkə(r)/ n. a person who makes a search for sth. 探索者；追求者

West Coast the states on the west coast of the US, esp. California 美国西海岸（尤指加利福尼亚州）

avidly /'ævidli/ ad. eagerly; enthusiastically 渴望地；急切地

Bostonian/bɒstəunjən/ n. 波士顿人（或居民）

vicariously /vɪˈkeəriəsli/ ad. felt or experienced by watching or reading about sb. else doing sth., rather than by doing it yourself 通过他人的经验感受的；从他人的经验间接获得的

glued to looking at sth. with all one's attention

目不转睛地盯着

gloom $ ^{*} $ /gluːm/ n. a feeling of deep sadness or hopelessness 忧郁；愁闷

doom/duːm/ n. a dreadful fate, esp. death or utter ruin 厄运；劫数

gloom and doom a feeling or attitude that things are only getting worse 悲观沮丧

X Games 世界极限运动会

all too very; much more than is desirable 极；甚

hence $ ^{A} $ /hens/ ad. for this reason or from this origin; therefore 因此；由此；所以

exception /ɪkˈsepʃən/ n. a person or thing that is not included in a general statement 例外的人或事

calamity $ ^{\triangle} $ /kəˈlæməti/ n. an event that causes great damage to people's lives, property, etc. 灾难；灾祸

record-breaking /'rekəd,breɪkɪŋ/ a. going beyond a previous record 破纪录的

destruction /dɪˈstrʌkʃən/ n. the act of destroying or state of being destroyed 破坏；毁灭

say /sei/ v. suggest or give sth. as an example or a possibility 假定说；比方说

rubberneck /ˈrʌbənek/ v. look about or watch sth. with too much interest 伸长脖子看（或听）；十分好奇地东张西望

Proper Names

Maria Konnikova /məˈraɪəˌkɒnɪˈkəʊvə/ 玛丽亚·康尼科娃

Sandy /'sændi/ 桑迪（飓风名）

Katrina /kəˈtriːnə/ 卡特里娜（飓风名）

Juno /ˈdʒuːnəʊ/ 朱诺（暴风雪名）

Irene/aɪˈriːn/ 艾琳（飓风名）

CNN Cable News Network 美国有线电视新闻网

Stephen Lyng /'stiːvən lɪn/ 斯蒂温·林

Global Reading

Skim the title and the first paragraph and answer the following two questions.

1. Which of the following is the author's purpose of writing this article?

a) To explain why girl names such as Sandy, Katrina, Juno, and Irene are popular.

b) To explain why weather reports are given so frequently on CNN.

c) To explain why people love talking about and viewing bad weather.

1. Why does the author ask the questions at the end of the first paragraph?

Close Reading

1. Scan the text to find "Stephen Lyng" and "edgework". Find the definition or explanation for "edgework". Then use your own words to define what edgework is.

1. Complete the table by supplying the main idea or topic sentence of Paras. 2–5 and the supporting evidence.

1. What is the main idea of the last paragraph? Why does the author put this idea in the concluding paragraph?

Critical Thinking

Discuss the following questions.

1. Do you agree with the author that humans have evolved with the love of risk-taking?

1. Can you offer an example of people experiencing edgework? How fascinating is it?

Language Enhancement

1. Some words have more than one part of speech (词性), hence more than one meaning. Study the five pairs of sentences and choose the correct meaning for the boldfaced words.

channel: a. a TV station b. means of communication c. direct ... toward a particular thing

1. ... weather reports on channels like CNN garner high viewer ratings. (Para. 1)

1. I decided to channel my energies into something useful.

stock: a. a share of a company b. farm animals c. provide with a full store

1. They run extreme races, BASE jump, or invest in volatile stocks. (Para. 3)

1. So, stock up on frozen pineapples, grapes and strawberries. (Para. 11, Reading 2, Unit 1)

approximate: a. nearly correct but not exact b. come near to c. estimate fairly accurately

1. A winter storm — or any storm, really — approximates this thrill. (Para. 4)

1. The approximate number of children in the school is 300.

glue: a. a sticky substance b. join together using glue c. look (at sth.) attentively

1. We stay glued to forecasts of gloom and doom for the same reason we watch the latest X Games. (Para. 5)

1. Tina is trying to match up the torn pieces of the photo with glue.

doom: a. a terrible fate b. complete failure c. make (sth.) certain to fail

1. We stay glued to forecasts of gloom and doom for the same reason we watch the latest X Games. (Para. 5)

1. The plan was doomed to failure from the start.

2. Complete the sentences with phrases from Reading 2. Their meanings and paragraph numbers have been given in brackets

1. Analysts pointed out that markets could fall farther, but were ___ the low points seen during the depths of the economic crisis. (a long way from; Para. 1)

1. There's the dependency case: if you become _____ alcohol, you may spend a long time trying to get off the bottle. (unable to stop using; Para. 2)

1. You'd better not leave mobile phones in a car especially when the vehicle ___ direct sunlight for a prolonged period. (is shown without proper protection; Para. 2)

1. The Web certainly helps save time when ___ useful information in doing research. (finding; Para. 3)

1. Mr. Buffett avoided technology shares, explaining that he would not ___ things he did not understand. (buy, put money in; Para. 3)

1. When you are in danger, the important thing is never to ___. (panic or lose self-control; Para. 3)

1. He decided to channel his energies into something useful, instead of ___ the computer screen all day long. (look at with full attention; Para. 5)

1. It is _____ easy to judge someone who says the wrong thing or acts a little differently from what we expect. (very; Para. 5)

1. Study the word building skill in the box and work on the tasks below.

Word Building Skill — Compounding (II): compound adjectives

A compound adjective is a compound of two or more attributive (定语的) words, that is, more than one word that are used together to modify a noun. The constituent (构成的) words of compound adjectives do not have to be adjectives. Combinations of nouns, determiners (限定词), and other parts of speech are also common, for example, "man-eating" (shark) and "one-way" (street).

Conventionally, compound adjectives that appear before a noun phrase must include a hyphen (连字符) between each word. Hyphens are used in this way to prevent confusion; without their use, a reader might interpret the words separately, rather than as a phrase. For example, "long-term contract" (as opposed to "long term contract", which could be interpreted as a long contract about a term).

Some common combinations of compound adjectives are:

numeral（数词）+ noun: “one-child”, “two-hour”;

adjective + noun: "full-time", "final-term";

adjective + present participle (现在分词): "good-looking", "long-lasting";

adjective + past participle (过去分词): "warm-hearted", "old-fashioned";

noun + present participle: "record-breaking", "English-speaking";

noun + past participle: "hand-made", "heart-broken".

Other combinations of compound adjectives include: numeral + noun + adjective (7-year-old), numerical + past participle (three-legged), adverb + present participle (fast-moving), adverb + past participle (well-known), adjective + adjective (dark-blue), adverb + adjective (all-round), noun + adjective (world-wide), etc.

A. Match the following words in Group A and B to make compound adjectives. Note that words from Group A should be the first half of the compound adjectives, and words from Group B should be the second half, then write down the Chinese meanings.

B. Complete each sentence with a proper compound adjective formed in Step A. Change the form where necessary.

1. We are very shocked at this old man's _____ face, which is the evidence of life-long hard work and sufferings.

1. Although he was not a top student in the class, the _____ programs at Harvard inspired him a lot and led to his great success later.

1. Eating _____ food in the morning reduces hunger all day long, Dr. Smith says, which lessens the chances of bingeing (大吃大喝) later.

1. His conclusion is _____ that it is very necessary to reform the economic policy both nationally and globally.

1. Due to the location of the beach and the rolling terrain (地势) of the site, all guest rooms provide _____ views of the ocean.

4. Study the translating skill in the box and work on the task below

Translating Skill — Addition (IV): adding conjunctions (连词)

In English-Chinese translation, conjunctions are sometimes added to highlight the implied relationship between clauses or sentences. At other times, conjunctions are added in compliance (符合) with usage in Chinese. For instance, in Chinese, subordinating conjunctions (从属连词) like “因为” and “所以” or “虽然” and “但是” are often used in pairs. Both can appear in the same sentence. But this is not the case with “because” and “so” or “although” and “but” in English. Therefore, when there is just one of the pair in English, the other half is often supplemented in Chinese to complete the pair. In the following example, the pair “如果……那（么）……” is used to correspond with the translation of the word “if”.

Source Text: If you were in a record-breaking storm in the past and nothing bad happened, you will likely dismiss the current danger. (Para. 6)

Translation: 如果你过去曾亲历一场史无前例的风暴但什么不幸也没有发生的话， $ \underline{\text{那（么）}} $你很可能会对现在的危险不以为然。

Translate into Chinese the following passage that serves as a summary of Reading 2, adding words where necessary

People are fascinated by storms, even when they are nowhere near them. A possible explanation for this is that we may be addicted to the danger. Because early experiences of humans involved constantly perilous conditions, we developed a certain expectation of risk. In the modern environment, we are not exposed to natural risks in the same way, but the underlying neural mechanisms have not gone anywhere. Therefore, most of us enjoy a certain thrill. A storm approximates this thrill. It is powerful and even dangerous. But safely hidden

inside and in front of our computer screens, we do not think it will really hurt us. By taking this relatively minor risk, we satisfy our inner risk seeker without going into dangerous territory. As for those people following a storm avidly even when they were far away from it, risk can well be experienced vicariously.

Translation:

Part II LISTENING AND VIEWING

Listening:

Are You Addicted to Your Phone?

Before Listening

Discuss the following questions.

1. How often do you check your mobile phone?

1. What do you usually do with your mobile phone?

1. What apps do you use most frequently?

New Words and Expressions

browse /brauz/ v. search for information on a computer or on the Internet （在计算机或因特网上）浏览（信息）

clinical /'klɪnɪkəl/ a. involving or relating to the direct medical treatment or testing of patients 临床的

allure $ ^{\triangle} $ /ə'ljʊə(r)/ n. the power to entice or attract through personal charm 诱惑；魅力；吸引力 etiquette $ ^{\triangle} $ /'etɪket/ n. the formal rules of proper (social) behavior 礼仪；（社交）礼节

selfie /'selfi/ n. 自拍照

go cold turkey 快速戒掉坏习惯

Listening Comprehension

Study the listening skill in the box and work on the tasks below.

Listening Skill — Focusing on numbers and statistics

Numbers and statistics play an important role in understanding the information precisely. The speaker in a lecture often supports his / her major arguments or findings by using some clearly organized data. The listener should pay more attention to these numbers including percentages, multiples (倍数), fractions (分数), etc.

1. Listen to the passage, focus on the numbers and fill in the blanks

1. According to a study led by Nottingham Trent University in Britain, the average person looks at their device _____ a day.

1. Even the study's participants thought that was a lot: this figure is _____ they thought they did.

1. Sherry Turkle interviewed _____ college students about this.

1. They talked about something they called "_____".

2. Listen again and choose the right answers

1. Which of the following functions of mobile phone has NOT been mentioned in the passage?

a) Surfing the Internet.

b) Taking a selfie.

c) Mobile payment.

1. What is “the rule of three” in a conversation according to Sherry Turkle?

a) You should consider other people more than yourself during the conversation.

b) You should keep looking up during the conversation if there are more than three people around you.

c) You should not look down at your mobile phone unless three people are using theirs and are looking up.

1. What is the best solution to mobile phone addiction according to the speaker?

a) Enjoying your life instead of staring at the screen of the phone.

b) Keeping your phone firmly in your pocket for a month.

c) Showing your friends the pictures stored in the phone's memory.

Viewing:

How to Make Stress Your Friend

Before Viewing

Discuss the following questions.

1. Do you think you are under stress now? If so, what makes you feel stressful?

1. Is stress always a bad thing in our life?

New Words and Expressions

mission /'mɪʃən/ n. the particular work which one believes is one's duty to do 职责；使命

track /træk/ v. follow the progress or development of sb. or sth. 跟踪（进展情况）

help out give help (to sb.) at a time of need （需要时）帮助某人

resilience /rɪˈzɪləns/ n. 复原力；适应力

inevitable $ ^{A} $/m'evitəbl/ a. that cannot be avoided; certain to happen 不可避免的；必然发生的

compassionate/kəmˈpæʃənət/ a. feeling or showing sympathy for people who are suffering有同情心的；表示同情的

pound /paund/ v. (of one's heart) beat very hard and quickly (心脏) 剧烈地跳动

profound/prəu'faud/ a. showing great knowledge and understanding 见解深刻的

Viewing Comprehension

Study the listening skill in the box and work on the tasks below.

Listening Skill — Recognizing signposting language（指示性语言）(I): contrast

Signposting language uses key words and phrases to enable the listener to navigate his / her way through the argument. It provides logical organization and improves the connections and transitions between thoughts. The commonly used signposting words show different "relations" like: listing, concluding, exemplifying, contrast, consequence, etc.

Listening for contrasting words will help you understand that contrasting information will follow. Some contrasting words and phrases are: yet, nevertheless, but, however, whereas, differ from, on the contrary, as opposed to, etc.

1. Watch the video clip and focus on the contrasting word "but". Fill in the blanks with the exact words you hear.

1. But I fear that something I've been teaching for the last 10 years is _____ and it has to do with stress.

1. Basically, I've turned stress ___. But I have changed my mind about stress, and today, I want to ___.

1. Okay, so the bad news first: For every major stressful life experience, like financial difficulties or ___, that increased the risk of dying by 30 percent. But — and I hope _____ a "but" by now — but that wasn't true for everyone.

1. Now I wouldn't necessarily ask for more stressful experiences in my life, but this science has given me _____ for stress.

1. Watch again and decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).

1. According to the speaker, stress mainly increases the risk of common cold and cardiovascular disease.

1. The study mentioned asked questions about people's stress and whether they are caring and helpful.

☐ 3) If a person is under economic pressure, his risk of dying will increase by 30 percent.

1. Since stress can be helpful and create courage, the speaker would ask for more stressful experiences in her life.

Critical Thinking

Discuss the following questions.

1. Are you stressful before tests? If so, how do you deal with test anxiety and do better on tests?

1. Do you know any techniques or professional knowledge about how to cope with stress?

Part III SPEAKING

Besides group discussions (Units 1–4), another important form of academic speaking is the presentation. You may find that there are more chances for you to give a presentation in college / university than in high school. Many students would feel puzzled about how to make effective presentations, and in most cases very nervous when giving such public speeches. From this unit to Unit 8, you are going to learn how to give a presentation in a desirable way. The starting point is the preparation you should make for a presentation.

Preparing for a presentation

A presentation is formal public speaking to an audience with the purpose to inform or persuade, in which visual aids such as PowerPoint (PPT) slides or posters are often used. Sufficient preparation is crucial to make a successful presentation. A 5-minute presentation may take the presenter's hours or even days to prepare and plan. Knowing more about the presentation, planning the structure and rehearsing (排练) the presentation are the three things you need to do during the preparation.

Knowing more about the presentation

Think about the following questions before a presentation:

Why do you present?

For whom do you present?

When do you present and for how long?

Where do you present?

In other words, the purpose, audience, time and place of the presentation all play a significant role in your decision on what to say and how to say it. The purpose of a presentation might vary from reporting the findings of your research to illustrating your viewpoints about a certain topic. What you are going to present should center on the objective.

The audience also needs to be taken into consideration when preparing. What is their background (including their culture and education)? What will they be interested in and want to know? What do they already know about the subject? An accurate analysis of the audience helps you present interesting and useful information to them and is key to the success of your presentation.

In addition, the time you are allowed to speak affects how much information you are going to convey. You are usually given a limited amount of time, so select the most important parts rather than everything.

Knowing where the presentation will take place also matters. If it is a big room, you'd better use a microphone and the size of words you write on the board or put on PPT slides should not be too small.

Planning the structure

A well-organized presentation is easy for the audience to follow. So you need to plan the

structure beforehand. A presentation normally contains three parts, i.e. introduction, body and conclusion. Sometimes a Question & Answer section is placed at the end. The specific skills and useful language of each part will be introduced in Units 6–8. But generally you should know: the introduction is for grabbing the attention of the audience; the body tells all about the subject; and the conclusion highlights what you have presented. You'd better make corresponding PPT slides with major information and relevant pictures, tables, diagrams on them, which can facilitate the audience's understanding, but try not to read directly from the PPT.

Rehearsing the presentation

After planning the structure of the presentation, it is advisable to write a manuscript or outline, which will help you navigate through the speech and make the presentation more logical, informative or persuasive. Note that you should write down only the key points, skipping the details such as greetings and linking sentences. If you write down everything, you are prone to read or recite your manuscript when presenting instead of talking to the audience.

Then open your slides and practice speaking against the clock for at least 2 times. In the process of rehearsing, you should:

make sure of the pronunciation of all difficult words;

be familiar with the content;

go through all the sections;

check the time;

make necessary modifications (修改).

After making all the above preparation, you will become a confident and enthusiastic speaker who is ready to communicate the subject you are familiar with to the target audience.

1. Work in a group and share your ideas about the following questions.

1. Have you ever given a presentation? If yes, was it a successful one? Why or why not?

1. Recall the presentations that you have seen in the past. What makes a good presenter?

What makes a poor presenter? You can add your opinions in the box below.

1. Suppose that you are going to give a 3-minute presentation on the topic "What Leads to Addiction?". Discuss with your group members about what you should do to prepare for this presentation.

1. Ask a group member to give a 3-minute presentation on the topic "What Leads to Addiction?".

Part IV WRITING

In academic writing, when you are presenting your opinion, it is advisable to use cautious language to maintain academic modesty. First, since academic writing is normally based on research and analysis, you must have referred to a large amount of others' work. To show respect to the ideas of others, you need to be modest. Secondly, if you use an absolute and over-confident tone to put forward your view, your argument will easily be refuted by others. After all, not a theory or method is definitely the best or the worst — there are always better or worse alternatives. Therefore, in order to make your argument stronger and more persuasive, you need to use cautious language to tone down your statement when necessary. In this unit, you are going to learn how to write academic texts by adopting a cautious and modest approach.

Writing in cautious language

Using cautious language in your writing can well defend your argument. For example, avoid such expressions as never, all, best, worst, etc. which sound too definite and certain, because actually few things in the world can be described in an extremely indisputable way — beliefs and concepts may change, theories and technologies will develop, etc.

Cautious language is also called "hedging" language. "To hedge against something" means to protect yourself from its effects, usually the unfavorable ones. Three types of hedging can be used to make your statement tentative, namely, expressing probability, showing distance, and using generalization.

Expressing probability

There are many ways of expressing probability in academic writing, including the use of modal auxiliaries, adjectives, adverbs and verbs.

1. One simple way is to use a modal auxiliary. Notice how the claim gradually weakens in the following three sentences:

Over-reliance on the smart phone will have negative impact on our mind.

Over-reliance on the smart phone would have negative impact on our mind.

Over-reliance on the smart phone may have negative impact on our mind.

Over-reliance on the smart phone might / could have negative impact on our mind.

1. Adjectives showing uncertainty can also be used to express probability. We may use adjectives such as certain, clear, probable, likely, possible, and unlikely to indicate the degrees from the most certain to the least certain. In order to maintain caution in most cases, you could use the adjectives that show less certainty. Their corresponding adverb forms can be used as well, such as probably and possibly.

1. Some verbs can be used to modify a bold statement. The verbs seem and appear have been used most frequently to show uncertainty. Compare the following sentences, in which the first one is so forceful that it looks like a fact rather than an opinion, while the modified statements are more cautious, showing that the writer is not so sure about them and further saving them from being argued and refuted.

People become competent in dealing with their own stress in helping others.

People seem to become competent in dealing with their own stress in helping others.

People appear to become competent in dealing with their own stress in helping others.

It seems that people become competent in dealing with their own stress in helping others.

• Showing distance

Showing distance is another strategy to be cautious. It means removing yourself from a strong — and possibly unjustified — claim. Instead of attributing an idea to be yours, you may use the following expressions to keep a distance from it:

Using generalization

A generalization is a statement that seems to be true in most situations or for most people, but that may not be completely true in all cases. Using generalization can effectively modify your argument. First, the verb tend is frequently used to state a generalized claim. For instance, in the statement:

More intelligent children tend to be more deceptive.

The verb tend (to) shows the writer's opinion that in most situations more intelligent children are more deceptive, but it is not true in all cases.

Another way of defending a generalization is to qualify the subject.

Females are willing to comfort those who are in difficulties.

Many females are willing to comfort those who are in difficulties.

A majority of females are willing to comfort those who are in difficulties.

1. Study the patterns of cautious language above and fill in the blanks with words or phrases from the box.

may it would appear seem it is widely accepted likely possibly

1. The advantages of deception _____ quite obvious, but what advantage could there _____ be to self-deception — to lying to yourself?

1. Experts note that men and women _____ respond to stress in different ways.

1. _____, however, that people like imitating what others are doing.

1. _____ that excessive stress is harmful for our health.

1. In marriage, those couples that have a great deal in common, are more _____ to report that they are happily married.

1. Different forms of cautious language are usually combined when used in academic writing. Identify the cautious language in the following text. Underline them and tell your partner whether they are expressing probability, showing distance, or using generalization.

It is suggested that the best looking thing on a man may be a good-looking woman. Researchers report that women find a man they see staying with an attractive woman more desirable than unattached men. That's according to a study in the journal Evolutionary Psychology, in which the women rated the men accompanied by good-looking girls as more desirable than the single guys. Plus, the attached men were thought more likely to be more intelligent, trustworthy, humorous, wealthy and attentive. Researchers deduced (推断) that most women probably assume partnered-up men have those qualities of brilliance and personality to be an appropriate match for a good-looking mate.

3. Write a body paragraph for an essay entitled "What Psychological Problems Are College Students Prone to Have?". Use the following guidelines to help your writing

1. Think of a topic sentence for the paragraph. For example, you may focus on one of the psychological problems that college students are prone to have, e.g. depression, anxiety, stress, adjustment disorder. Then provide evidence to support the main idea.

1. This body paragraph should include a topic sentence, supporting sentences and / or a concluding sentence.

1. Learn to use formal and cautious language in your writing.